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With the range of psychotropic drugs expanding and the usages of existing medications diversifying, we are pleased to present the Seventh Edition of the world's best-selling formulary in psychopharmacology. The new edition features nine new compounds as well as information about several new formulations of existing drugs. Many important new indications are covered for existing drugs, as are updates to the profiles of the entire content and collection, including new injectable and transdermal formulations, as well as updated warnings and indications. The Pearls have all been refreshed and the antipsychotics section has been completely revised. With its easy-to-use, full-colour template-driven navigation system, Prescriber's Guide combines evidence-based data with clinically informed advice to support everyone who is prescribing in the field of mental health.
University Printing House, Cambridge CB2 8BS, United Kingdom
One Liberty Plaza, 20th Floor, New York, NY 10006, USA
477 Williamstown Road, Port Melbourne, VIC 3207, Australia
314-321, 3rd Floor, Plot 3, Splendor Forum, asola District Centre, New Delhi – 110025, India
79 Anson Road, #06–04/06, Singapore 079906
Cambridge University Press is part of the University of Cambridge.
It furthers the University’s mission by disseminating knowledge in the pursuit of education, learning, and research at the highest international levels of excellence.
Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9781316618134
© Stephen M. Stahl 2005, 2006, 2009, 2011, 2014, 2017, 2021
This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press.
First published 2005
Revised and updated edition published 2006
Third edition published 2009
Fourth edition published 2011
Fifth edition published 2014
Sixth edition published 2017
Seventh edition published 2021
Printed in the United Kingdom by TJ Books Ltd, Padstow Cornwall
A catalog record for this publication is available from the British Library.
ISBN 978-1-108-92601-0 Paperback
ISBN 978-1-108-92602-7 Spiral
Additional resources for this publication at www.stahlonline.org
Every effort has been made in preparing this book to provide accurate and up-to-date information that is in accord with accepted standards and practice at the time of publication. Although case histories are drawn from actual cases, every effort has been made to disguise the identities of the individuals involved. Nevertheless, the authors, editors, and publishers can make no warranties that the information contained herein is totally free from error, not least because clinical standards are constantly changing through research and regulation. The authors, editors, and publishers therefore disclaim all liability for direct or consequential damages resulting from the use of material contained in this book. Readers are strongly advised to pay careful attention to information provided by the manufacturer of any drugs or equipment that they plan to use.
Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of URLs for external or third-party Internet Web sites referred to in this publication, and does not guarantee that any content on such Web sites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate.
Index by Drug Name
Commonly Prescribed For (bold for FDA approved)
This Guide is intended to complement Stahl’s Essential Psychopharmacology. Stahl’s Essential Psychopharmacology emphasizes mechanisms of action and how psychotropic drugs work upon receptors and enzymes in the brain. This Guide gives practical information on how to use these drugs in clinical practice.
It would be impossible to include all available information about any drug in a single work, and no attempt is made here to be comprehensive. The purpose of this Guide is instead to integrate the art of clinical practice with the science of psycho-pharmacology. That means including only essential facts in order to keep things short. Unfortunately it also means excluding less critical facts as well as extraneous information, which may nevertheless be useful to the reader but would make the book too long and dilute the most important information. In deciding what to include and what to omit, the author has drawn upon common sense and 30 years of clinical experience with patients. He has also consulted with many experienced clinicians and analyzed the evidence from controlled clinical trials and regulatory filings with government agencies.
In order to meet the needs of the clinician and to facilitate future updates of this Guide, the opinions of readers are sincerely solicited. Feedback can be emailed to customerservice@neiglobal.com. Specifically, are the best and most essential psychotropic drugs included here? Do you find any factual errors? Are there agreements or disagreements with any of the opinions expressed here? Are there suggestions for any additional tips or pearls for future editions? Any and all suggestions and comments are welcomed.
All of the selected drugs are presented in the same format in order to facilitate rapid access to information. Specifically, each drug is broken down into five sections, each designated by a unique color background: Therapeutics, Side Effects, Dosing and Use, Special Populations, and The Art of Psychopharmacology, followed by key references.
Therapeutics covers the brand names in major countries; the class of drug; what it is commonly prescribed and approved for by the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA); how the drug works; how long it takes to work; what to do if it works or if it doesn’t work; the best augmenting combinations for partial response or treatment resistance; and the tests (if any) that are required.
Side Effects explains how the drug causes side effects; gives a list of notable, life-threatening, or dangerous side effects; gives a specific rating for weight gain or sedation; and gives advice about how to handle side effects, including best augmenting agents for side effects.
Dosing and Use gives the usual dosing range; dosage forms; how to dose and dosing tips; symptoms of overdose; long-term use; if habit forming, how to stop; pharmacokinetics; drug interactions; when not to use; and other warnings or precautions.
Special Populations gives specific information about any possible renal, hepatic, and cardiac impairments, and any precautions to be taken for treating the elderly, children, adolescents, and pregnant and breast-feeding women.
The Art of Psychopharmacology gives the author’s opinions on issues such as the potential advantages and disadvantages of any one drug, the primary target symptoms, and clinical pearls to get the best out of a drug.
In addition, drugs for which switching between medications can be complicated have a special section called The Art of Switching, which includes clinical pearls and graphical representations to help guide the switching process.
There is a list of icons used in this Guide following this Introduction and at the back of the Guide are several indices. The first is an index by drug name, giving both generic names (uncapitalized) and trade names (capitalized and followed by the generic name in parentheses). The second is an index of common uses for the generic drugs included in the Guide and is organized by disorder/symptom. Agents that are approved by the FDA for a particular use are shown in bold. The third index is organized by drug class and lists all the agents that fall within each particular class. In addition to these indices there is a list of abbreviations.
Readers are encouraged to consult standard references1 and comprehensive psychiatry and pharmacology textbooks for more in-depth information. They are also reminded that the Art of Psychopharmacology section is the author’s opinion.
It is strongly advised that readers familiarize themselves with the standard use of these drugs before attempting any of the more exotic uses discussed, such as unusual drug combinations and doses. Reading about both drugs before augmenting one with the other is also strongly recommended. Today’s psychopharmacologist should also regularly track blood pressure, weight, and body mass index for most of his or her patients. The dutiful clinician will also check out the drug interactions of non-central nervous system (CNS) drugs with those that act in the CNS, including any prescribed by other clinicians.
Certain drugs may be for experts only, and these might include clozapine, thioridazine, pimozide, nefazodone, and monoamine oxidase (MAO) inhibitors, among others. Off-label uses not approved by the FDA and inadequately studied doses or combinations of drugs may also be for the expert only, who can weigh risks and benefits in the presence of sometimes vague and conflicting evidence. Pregnant or nursing women, or people with two or more psychiatric illnesses, substance abuse, and/or a concomitant medical illness may be suitable patients for the expert only. Controlled substances also require expertise. Use your best judgment as to your level of expertise and realize that we are all learning in this rapidly advancing field. The practice of medicine is often not so much a science as it is an art. It is important to stay within the standards of medical care for the field, and also within your personal comfort zone, while trying to help extremely ill and often difficult patients with medicines that can relieve their suffering and sometimes transform their lives.
Finally, this book is intended to be genuinely helpful for practitioners of psychopharmacology by providing them with the mixture of facts and opinions selected by the author. Ultimately, prescribing choices are the reader’s responsibility. Every effort has been made in preparing this book to provide accurate and up-to-date information in accord with accepted standards and practice at the time of publication. Nevertheless, the psychopharmacology field is evolving rapidly and the author and publisher make no warranties that the information contained herein is totally free from error, not least because clinical standards are constantly changing through research and regulation. Furthermore, the author and publisher disclaim any responsibility for the continued currency of this information and disclaim all liability for any and all damages, including direct or consequential damages, resulting from the use of information contained in this book. Doctors recommending and patients using these drugs are strongly advised to pay careful attention to, and consult information provided by, the manufacturer.
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agomelatine | ![]() |
alcohol dependence treatment |
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alpha adrenergic blocker | ![]() |
alpha 2 agonist |
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anticonvulsant | ![]() |
antiparkinson/anticholinergic |
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benzodiazepine | ![]() |
benzodiazepine receptor antagonist |
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beta blocker | ![]() |
cholinesterase inhibitor |
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dopamine 2 antagonist | ![]() |
dopamine 2 partial agonist |
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dual orexin receptor antagonist | ![]() |
flibanserin |
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histaminic | ![]() |
lithium |
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medical food | ![]() |
melanocortin receptor agonist |
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l-methylfolate | ![]() |
modafinil (wake-promoter) |
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monoamine oxidase inhibitor | ![]() |
naltrexone/bupropion |
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nefazodone (serotonin antagonist/reuptake inhibitor) | ![]() |
neuroactive steroid |
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nicotinic partial agonist | ![]() |
N-methyl-D-aspartate antagonist |
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noradrenergic and specific serotonergic antidepressant | ![]() |
norepinephrine and dopamine reuptake inhibitor |
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phentermine/topiramate | ![]() |
phosphodiesterase inhibitor |
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pimavanserin | ![]() |
sedative-hypnotic |
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selective norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor | ![]() |
selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor |
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serotonin-dopamine antagonist | ![]() |
serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor |
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serotonin 1A partial agonist | ![]() |
serotonin partial agonist reuptake inhibitor |
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sodium oxybate | ![]() |
stimulant |
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thyroid hormone | ![]() |
trazodone (serotonin antagonist/reuptake inhibitor) |
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tricyclic/tetracyclic antidepressant | ![]() |
vesicular monoamine transporter 2 inhibitor |
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vortioxetine | ![]() |
How the drug works, mechanism of action |
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Best augmenting agents to add for partial response or treatment resistance | ![]() |
Life-threatening or dangerous side effects |
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Weight Gain: Degrees of weight gain associated with the drug, with unusual signifying that weight gain has been reported but is not expected; not unusual signifying that weight gain occurs in a significant minority; common signifying that many experience weight gain and/or it can be significant in amount; and problematic signifying that weight gain occurs frequently, can be significant in amount, and may be a health problem in some patients | ![]() |
Sedation: Degrees of sedation associated with the drug, with unusual signifying that sedation has been reported but is not expected; not unusual signifying that sedation occurs in a significant minority; common signifying that many experience sedation and/or it can be significant in amount; and problematic signifying that sedation occurs frequently, can be significant in amount, and may be a health problem in some patients |
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Tips for dosing based on the clinical expertise of the author | ![]() |
Drug interactions that may occur |
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Warnings and precautions regarding use of the drug | ![]() |
Dosing and other information specific to children and adolescents |
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Information regarding use of the drug during pregnancy | ![]() |
Clinical pearls of information based on the clinical expertise of the author |
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The art of switching | ![]() |
Suggested reading |
5HT | serotonin | LDH | lactate dehydrogenase |
ACh | acetylcholine | LDL | low-density lipoprotein |
AChE | acetylcholinesterase | MAO | monoamine oxidase |
ADHD | attention deficit hyperactivity disorder | MAOI | monoamine oxidase inhibitor |
AE | adverse effect | mCPP | meta-chloro-phenyl-piperazine |
AIMS | Abnormal Involuntary Movement Scale | MDD | major depressive disorder |
ALPT | total serum alkaline phosphatase | MDMA | 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (ecstasy) |
ALT | alanine aminotransferase | mg | milligram |
AMPA | alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid | μg | microgram |
ANA | antinuclear antibody | MHD | monohydroxy derivative |
ANC | absolute neutrophil count | mL | milliliter |
AST | aspartate aminotransferase | mmHg | millimeters of mercury |
AUC | area under the curve | MRHD | maximum recommended human dose |
AV | atroventricular | MRI | magnetic resonance imaging |
BDNF | brain-derived neurotrophic factor | MRSA | methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus |
BEN | benign ethnic neutropenia | mTORC1 | mammalian target of rapamycin complex 1 |
BHB | beta-hydroxybutyric acid | NE | norepinephrine |
bid | twice a day | NET | norepinephrine transporter |
BMI | body mass index | NMDA | N-methyl-D-aspartate |
BP | blood pressure | NMS | neuroleptic malignant syndrome |
BuChE | butyrylcholinesterase | NOAEL | no observed adverse effect level |
CBC | complete blood count | NSAID | nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug |
Cmax | maximum concentration | OCD | obsessive-compulsive disorder |
CR | controlled-release | ODT | oral disintegrating tablet |
CRP | C-reactive protein | ODV | O-desmethylvenlafaxine |
CSF | cerebrospinal fluid | OSAHS | obstructive sleep apnea/hypopnea syndrome |
CMI | clomipramine | PBA | pseudobulbar affect |
CNS | central nervous system | PCP | phencyclidine |
COPD | chronic obstructive pulmonary disease | PDE | phosphodiesterase |
CPAP | continuous positive airway pressure | PET | positron emission tomography |
CYP450 | cytochrome P450 | PLLR | Pregnancy and Lactation Labeling Rule |
DA | dopamine | PMDD | premenstrual dysphoric disorder |
DEA | Drug Enforcement Administration | prn | as needed |
De-CMI | desmethyl-clomipramine | PTSD | posttraumatic stress disorder |
dL | deciliter | qd | once a day |
DLB | dementia with Lewy bodies | qhs | once a day at bedtime |
DORA | dual orexin receptor antagonist | qid | 4 times a day |
DRESS | drug reaction with eosinophilia and systemic symptoms | REMS | Risk Evaluation and Mitigation Strategy |
DSM-5 | Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th edition | RIMA | reversible inhibitor of monoamine oxidase A |
ECG | electrocardiogram | SERT | serotonin transporter |
EEG | electroencephalogram | SGRI | selective GABA reuptake inhibitor |
ER | extended-release | SIADH | syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone secretion |
FDA | Food and Drug Administration | SNRI | dual serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor |
GABA | gamma-aminobutyric acid | SPARI | serotonin partial antagonist reuptake inhibitor |
GAD | generalized anxiety disorder | SR | sustained-release |
GFR | glomerular filtration rate | SSRI | selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor |
HDL | high-density lipoprotein | TCA | tricyclic antidepressant |
HLH | hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis | TD | tardive dyskinesia |
HMG CoA | beta-hydroxy-beta-methylglutaryl coenzyme A | tid | 3 times a day |
HSDD | hypoactive sexual desire disorder | Tmax | time to reach maximum concentration |
IM | intramuscular | TSH | thyroid-stimulating hormone |
IR | immediate-release | VMA | vanillylmandelic acid |
IV | intravenous | VMAT | vesicular monoamine transporter |
LAI | long-acting injectable | WBC | white blood cell count |
lb | pound |
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